Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Clinical Implications and Methodological Challenges in the Study of the Neuropsychological Correlates of Cannabis, Stimulant, and Opioid Abuse

  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Chronic consumption of several drugs of abuse (cannabis, stimulants, opioids) has been associated with the presence of neuropsychological impairments in a broad range of functions. Nevertheless, in recent years neuropsychological research on substance abuse has focused on the study of impairments in the executive functions linked to the prefrontal cortex and their influence on the personality, cognitions, and behaviors of the substance abusers. The aim of our review is, first, to summarize the main neuropsychological impairments shown by classic studies, as well as these new discoveries in executive functioning; second, to consider the mediating role of neuropsychological status on treatment outcomes and analyze the impact of these impairments in clinical practice with drug addicts; and third, to review the principal methodological challenges associated with research in the field of the neuropsychology of substance abuse. We also highlight the convenience of intervening in those functions most relevant to the abusers' persistence in consumption and risk of relapse.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Aasly, J., Storsaeter, O., Nilsen, G., Smevik, O., and Rinck, P. (1993). Minor structural brain changes in young drug abusers. Acta Neurol. Scand. 87: 210-214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adamse, M. A. (1987). Neuropsychological examination of a chronic cocaine abuse population [Abstract]. Dissertat. Abstr. Int. 48: 3143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adinoff, B., Devous, M. D., Best, S. M., George, M. S., Alexander, D., and Payne, K. (2001). Limbic resposiveness to procaine in cocaine-addicted subjects. Am. J. Psychiatry 158: 390-398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aharonovic, E., Nunes, E., and Hasin, D. (2003). Cognitive impairment, retention and abstinence among cocaine abusers in cognitive-behavioral treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 71: 207-211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, D. N., and Landis, R. K. B. (1998). Neuropsychological correlates of substance use disorders. In Snyder, P. J., and Nussbaum, P. D. (eds.), Clinical Neuropsychology: A Pocket Handbook for Assessment, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 591-612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T. J., Moeller, F. G., Rhoades, H. M., and Cherek, D. R. (1998). Impulsivity and history of drug dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 50: 137-145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allison, W. M., and Jerrom, D. W. A. (1984). Glue sniffing: A pilot study of three cognitive effects of long-term use. Int. J. Addict. 19: 453-458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alterman, A. I., McDermott, P. A., Cacciola, J. S., Rutherford, M. J., Boardman, C. R., McKay, J. R., et al. (1998). A typology of antisociality in methadone patients. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 107: 412-422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amass, L., Nardin, R., Mendelson, J. H., Teoh, S. K., and Woods, B. T. (1992). Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging in heroin-and cocaine-dependent men: A preliminary study. Psychiatry Res.: Neuroimag. 45: 15-23.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Stastistical Manual for Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.

  • Ardila, A., Roselli, M., and Strumwasser, S. (1991). Neuropsychological effects of cocaine abuse. Int. J. Neurosci. 57: 73-79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, T. D, and Costello, E. J. (2002). Community studies on adolescent substance use, abuse, or dependence and psychiatric comorbidity. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 6: 1224-1239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arndt, S., Cohen, G., Alliger, R. J., Swayze, V. W., and Andriasen, N. C. (1991). Problems with ratio and proportion measures of imaged cerebral structures. Psychiatry Res. Neuroimag. Sect. 40: 79-89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Azrin, R. L., Millsaps, C. L., Burton, D. B., and Mittenberg, W. (1992). Recovery of memory and intelligence following chronic cocaine abuse. Clin. Neuropsychol. 6: 344-345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. D. (1996). Exploring the central executive. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 49: 5-28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. D. (1998). The central executive: A concept and some misconceptions. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 4: 523-526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, S. A., Carroll, K. M., Babor, T. F., and Rounsaville, B. J. (1995). Subtypes of cocaine abusers: Support for a Type A-Type B distinction. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 63: 115-124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation: An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychol. Rev. 11: 1-29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Edelbrock, C. S., and Smallish, L. (1990). The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria, I: An 8-year prospective follow-up study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 29: 546-557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrat, E., Beaver, W., White, R., Blakeney, P., and Adams, P. (1972). The effects of the chronic use of marijuana on sleep and perceptual motor performance in humans. In: Lewis, M. F. (ed.), Current Research in Marihuana, Academic Press, New York, pp. 163-193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartzokis, G., Beckson, M., Lu, P. H., Edwards, N., Rapoport, R., Wiseman, E., et al. (2000). Age-related brain volume reductions in amphetamine and cocaine addicts and normal controls: Implications for addiction research. Psychiatry Res. Neuroimag. 98: 93-102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, L. (2001). Antisocial personality disorder and cocaine dependence: Their effects in behavioural and electroencephalographic measures of time estimation. Drug Alcohol Depend. 63: 87-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, W. W., and Borrell, G. K. (2000). Forms of knowledge, cognitive impairment and drug abuse: A demonstration. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 24: 17-22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, W. W., Katzun, V. M., Moreland, V. J., and Nixon, S. J. (1995). Neuropsychological performance of recently abstinent alcoholics and cocaine abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 37: 247-253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechara, A., and Damasio, H. (2002). Decision-making and addiction. Part I: Impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences. Neuropsychologia 40: 1675-1689.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechara, A., Damasio, H., and Damasio, A. R. (2000). Emotion, decision-making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb. Cortex 10: 295-307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Damasio, A. R., and Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 50: 7-15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechara, A., Dolan, S., Denburg, N., Hindes, A., Anderson, S. W., and Nathan, P. E. (2001). Decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in alcohol and stimulant abusers. Neuropsychologia 39: 376-389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechara, A., Dolan, S., and Hindes, A. (2002). Decision-making and addiction. Part II: Myopia for the future or hypersensitivity to reward? Neuropsychologia 40: 1690-1705.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennet, T. L. (1987). Individual psychotherapy and minor head injury. Cogn. Rehabil. 3: 20-24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, G. J., Heaton, R., and Kirby, M. (1978). Neuropsychological assessment of chronic inhalant abusers: A preliminary report. In: Sharp, C. W., and Carroll, L. T. (eds.), Voluntary Inhalation of Industrial Solvents, National Institute of Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD, pp. 111-136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J., Van Gorp, W. G., Herzberg, D. S., and Hinkin, C. (1993). Neuropsychological deficits in abstinent cocaine abusers: Preliminary findings after two weeks of abstinence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 32: 231-237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bezeau, S., and Graves, R. (2001). Statistical power and effect sizes of clinical neuropsychology research. J. Clin. Exp. Psychol. 23: 399-406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhattachary, S., and Powell, J. H. (2001). Recreational use of 3-4-methyledioxymethanphetamine (MDMA) or "ecstasy": Evidence for cognitive impairment. Psycholog. Med. 31: 647-658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Wilens, T. E., Mick, E., Faraone, S. V., and Spencer, T. (1998). Does attention-deficit hiperactivity disorder impact the developmental course of drug and alcohol abuse and dependence? Biol. Psychiatry 44: 269-273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigler, E. D. (1979). Neuropsychological evaluation of adolescent patients hospitalized with chronic inhalant abuse. Clin. Neuropsychol. 1: 8-12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Block, R. L., and Ghoneim, M. M. (1993) Effects of chronic marijuana use on human cognition. Psychopharmacology 110: 219-228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Block, R. L., O'Leary, D. S., Hichwa, R. D., Augustinack, J. C., Ponto, L. L., Ghoneim, M. M., et al., (2000). Cerebellar hypoactivity in frequent marijuana users. Neuroreport 11: 749-753.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogenschutz, M. P., and Akin, S. J. (2000). 12-step participation and attitudes towards 12-step meetings in dual diagnosis patients. Alcohol. Treat. Q. 18: 31-45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolla, K. I., Eldreth, D. A., London, E. D., Kiehl, K. A., Mouraditis, M., Contoreggi, C., et al. (2003). Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in abstinent cocaine abusers performing a decision-making task. Neuroimage 19: 1085-1094.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolla, K. I., Funderburk, F. R., and Cadet, J. L. (2000). Differential effects of cocaine and cocaine + alcohol on neurocognitive performance. Neurology 54: 2285-2292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolla, K. I., McCann, U. D., and Ricaurte, G. A. (1998). Memory impairment in abstinent MDMA ("Ecstasy") users. Neurology 51: 1532-1537.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J. D., Innis, R. B., Salomon, R. M., Staib, L. H., Ng, C. K., Miller, H. L., et al. (1997). Positron emission tomography measurement of cerebral metabolic correlates of tryptophan depletion induced depressive relapse. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 54: 364-374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broadbent, D. E., Cooper, P. F., Fitzgerald, P., and Parkes, K. R. (1982). The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) and its correlates. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 21: 1-16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brokate, B., Hildebrandt, H., Eling, P., Fichtner, H., Runge, K., and Timm, C. (2003). Frontal lobe dysfunctions in Korsakoff's syndrome and chronic alcoholism. Neuropsychology 17: 420-428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Finch, S., and Cohen, P. (1995). Aggression, intrapsychic distress, and drug use: Antecedents and intervening processes. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 34: 1076-1084.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooner, R. K., Kidorf, M., King, V. L., and Stoller, K. (1998). Preliminary evidence of good treatment response in antisocial drug abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 49: 249-260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cadoret, R. J., Yates, W. R., Troughton, E., Woodworth, G., and Stewart, M. A. (1995). Adoption study demonstrating two genetic pathways to drug abuse. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52: 42-52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campodonico, J. R., and McGlynn, S. M. (1995). Assessing awareness of deficits: Recent research and applications. In: Cushman, L. A., and Scherer, M. J. (eds.), Measurement and Instrumentation in Psychology. Psychological Assessment in Medical Rehabilitation, American Psychological Association Books, Washington, DC, pp. 393-418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carey, K. B., Cocco, K. M., and Correia, C. J. (1997). Reliability and validity of the Addiction Severity Index among outpatients with severe mental illness. Psycholog. Assess. 9: 422-428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlin, A. S., and Trupin, E. W. (1977). The effects of long-term chronic marijuana use on neuropsychological functioning. Int. J. Addict. 12: 617-624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, K. M., and Hittner, J. B. (1997). Cognitive impairment among the dually diagnosed: Substance use history and depressive symptom correlates. Addiction 92: 747-759.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, G., and Ballard, C. (1994). Psychiatric sequelae of MDMA (ecstasy) and related drugs. Ir. J. Psycholog. Med. 11: 132-133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chait, L. D., and Pierri, J. (1992). Effects of smoked marijuana on human performance: A critical review. In: Murphy, L., and Bartke, A. (eds.), Marihuana/Cannabinoids: Neurobiology and Neurophysiology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 387-423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, R. A., Taylor, J. A., and Potenza, M. N. (2003). Development neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: A critical period of addiction vulnerability. Am. J. Psychiatry 160: 1041-1052.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, L., Ernst, T., Speck, O., Patel, H., DeSilva, M., Leonido-Yee, M., et al. (2002). Perfusion MRI and computerized cognitive test abnormalities in abstinent methamphetamine users. Psychiatry Res. Neuroimag. 114: 65-79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, L., Grob, C. S., Ernst, T., Itti, L., Mishkin, F. S., Jose-Melchor, R., et al. (2000). Effects of ecstasy [3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)] on cerebral blood flow: A co-registered SPECT and MRI study. Psychiatry Res.: Neuroimag. Sect. 98: 15-28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chengappa, K. N. R., Levine, J., Gershon, S., and Kupfer, D. J. (2000). Lifetime prevalence of substance or alcohol abuse and dependence among subjects with bipolar I and II disorders in a voluntary registry. Bipolar Disord. 2: 191-195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cloninger, C. R. (1997). Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms in alcoholism. Science 236: 410-436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cloninger, C. R., Przybeck, T. R., and Svaric, D. M. (1991). The Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire U.S. normative data. Psychol. Rep. 69: 1047-1057.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences. Revised, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Lessin, P. J., Hahn, P. M., and Tyrrell, E. D. (1976). A 94-day cannabis study. In: Braude, M. C., and Szara, S. (eds.), The Pharmacology of Marijuana, Raven Press, New York, pp. 621-626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compton, W. M., Cottler, L. B., Jacobs, J. L., Ben-Abdallah, A., and Spitznagel, E. L. (2003). The role of psychiatric disorders in predicting drug dependence treatment outcomes. Am. J. Psychiatry 160: 890-895.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conway, K. P., Kane, R. J., Ball, S., Poling, J. C., and Rounsaville, B. J. (2003). Personality, substance of choice and polysubstance involvement among substance dependent patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 71: 65-75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, A. L., and Sorensen, J. L. (2001). Differences between methamphetamine users and cocaine users in treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 62: 91-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornish, J. W., and O'Brien, C. P. (1996). Crack cocaine abuse: An epidemic with many public health consequences. Annu. Rev. Public Health 17: 259-273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, R. L., Lyoo, I. K., Sung, S. O., Ahn, K. H., Kim, M. J., Hwang, J., et al. (2003). Reduced cortical gray matter density in human MDMA (Ecstasy) users: A voxel-based morphometry study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 72: 225-235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Creighton, F., Black, D., and Hyde, C. (1991). "Ecstasy" psychosis and flashbacks. Br. J. Psychiatry 159: 713-715.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crits-Cristoph, P., Siqueland, L., Blaine, J., Frank, A., Luborsky, L., Onken, L. S., et al. (1999). Psychosocial treatments for cocaine dependence: National Institute on Drug Abuse collaborative cocaine treatment study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 56: 493-502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croft, R. J., Mackay, A. J., Mills, A. T. D., and Gruzelier, J. G. D. (2001). The relative contributions of ecstasy and cannabis to cognitive impairment. Psychopharmacology 153: 373-379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Culver, C. M., and King, F. W. (1974). Neuropsychological assessment of undergraduate marijuana and LSD users. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 31: 707-711.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, J. L. (1993). Frontal subcortical circuits and human behavior. Arch. Neurol. 50: 873-880.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, H. V. (2000). Is MDMA (ecstasy) neurotoxic in humans? An overview of evidence and methodological problems in research. Neuropsychobiology 42: 34-41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, H. V., and Travill, R. A. (1997). Mood and cognitive effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy"): Week-end "high" followed by mid-week "low." Addiction 92: 821-831.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dackis, C. A., and O'Brien, C. P. (2001). Cocaine dependence: A disease of the brain's reward centers. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 21: 111-117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daglish, M. R. C., Weinstein, A., Malizia, A. L., Wilson, S., Melichar, J. K., Britten, S., et al. (2001). Changes in regional cerebral blood flow elicited by craving memories in abstinent opiate-dependent subjects. Am. J. Psychiatry 158: 1680-1686.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalmau, A., Bergman, B., and Brismar, B. (1999). Psychotic disorders among inpatients with abuse of cannabis, amphetamine and opiates. Do dopaminergic stimulants facilitate psychiatric illness? Eur. Psychiatry 14: 366-371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, Grosset/Putnam, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawes, M. A., Dorn, L. D., Moss, H. B., Yao, J. K., Kirisci, L., Ammerman, R. T., et al. (1999). Hormonal and behavioral homeostasis in boys at risk for substance abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 55: 165-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawes, M. A., Tarter, R. E., and Kirisci, L. (1997). Behavioral self-regulation: Correlates and 2 year follow-ups for boys at risk for substance abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 45: 165-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Graaf, R., Bijl, R. V., Spijker, J., Beekman, A. T. F., and Vollebergh, W. A. M. (2003). Temporal sequencing of lifetime mood disorders in relation to comorbid anxiety and substance use disorders. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 38: 1-11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dornbush, R. L., Clare, G., Zaks, A., Crown, P., Volavska, J., and Fink, M. (1972). 21-day administration of marijuana in male volunteers. In: Lewis, M. F. (ed.), Current Research in Marijuana, Academic Press, New York, pp. 115-128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dughiero, G., Schifano, F., and Forza, G. (2001). Personality dimensions and psychopathological profiles of Ecstasy users. Hum. Psychopharnacol.: Clin. Exp. 16: 635-639.

    Google Scholar 

  • Easton, C., and Bauer, L. O. (1996). Neuropsychological correlates of urine toxicology results. Neuropsychopharmachol. Biol. Psychiatry 20: 969-982.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebmeier, K. P., Cavanagh, J. T., Moffoot, A. P., Glabus, M. F., O'Carroll, M. E., and Goodwin, G. M. (1997). Cerebral perfusion correlates of depressed mood. Br. J. Psychiatry 170: 77-81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenreich, H., Rinn, T., Kunert, H. J., Moeller, M. R., Poser, W., Schilling, L., et al. (1999). Specific attentional disfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use. Psychopharmachology 142: 295-301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellenberg, L., Roosenbaum, G., Goldman, M., and Whitman, R. D. (1980). Recoverability of psychological functioning following alcohol abuse: Lateralization effects. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 48: 503-510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ernst, M., Grant, S. J., London, E. D., Kimes, A. S., and Spurgeon, L. (2003). Decision-making in adolescents with behavior disorders and adults with substance abuse. Am. J. Psychiatry 160: 33-40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Errico, A. L., Nixon, S. J., Parsons, O. A., and Tassey, J. (1990). Screening for neuropsychological impairment in alcoholics. Psycholog. Assess. 2: 45-50.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addictionen.pdf. 2003 Annual Report on the State of the Drug Problem in the European Union and Norway Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. http//annualreport.emcdda.eu.int//download/ar2003eu.

  • Fals-Stewart, W. (1993). Neurocognitive defects and their impact on substance abuse treatment. J. Addict. Offender Counsel. 13: 46-57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fals-Stewart, W., and Lucente, S. (1994a). The effect of cognitive rehabilitation on the neuropsychological status of patients in drug abuse treatment who display neurocognitive impairment. Rehabil. Psychol. 39: 79-94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fals-Stewart, W., and Lucente, S. (1994b). The effect of neurocognitive status and personality functioning on length of stay in residential substance abuse treatment: An integrative study. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 8: 1-12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fals-Stewart, W., and Schafer, J. (1992). The relationship between length of stay in drug-free therapeutic communities and neurocognitive functioning. J. Clin. Psychol. 48: 539-543.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fals-Stewart, W., Schafer, J., Lucente, S., Rustine, T., and Brown, L. (1994). Neurobehavioral consequences of prolonged alcohol and substance abuse: A review of findings and treatment implications. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 14: 755-778.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fein, G., Di Sclafani, V., and Meyerhoff, D. J. (2002). Prefrontal cortical volume reduction associated with frontal cortex function deficit in 6-week abstinent crack-cocaine dependent men. Drug Alcohol Depend. 68: 87-93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fields, S., and Fullerton, J. (1975). Influence of heroin addiction in neuropsychological functioning. J. Clin. Consult. Psychol. 43: 114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fillmore, M. T., and Rush, C. R. (2002). Impaired inhibitory control of behavior in chronic cocaine users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 66: 265-273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fillmore, M. T., Rush, C. R., and Hays, L. (2002). Acute effects of oral cocaine on inhibitory control of behavior in humans. Drug Alcohol Depend. 67: 157-167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. M., Page, B., Francis, D. J., Copeland, K., Naus, M. J., Davis, C. M., et al. (1996). Cognitive correlates of long-term cannabis use in Costa Rican men. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 53: 1051-1057.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flory, K., and Lynam, D. R. (2003). The relation between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse: What role does conduct disorder play? Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 6: 1-14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, H. C., McLean, A., Turner, J. J. D., Parrot, A. C., Rogers, R., and Sahakian, B. J. (2002). Neuropsychological evidence of a relatively selective profile of temporal dysfunction in drug-free MDMA ("ecstasy") polydrug users. Psychopharmacology 162: 203-214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, H. C., Parrot, A. C., and Turner, J. J. D. (2001). Ecstasy use: Cognitive deficits related to dosage rather than self-reported problematic use of the drug. J. Psychopharmacol. 15: 273-281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, I. M., Lessin, P. J., Tyrrell, E. D., Hahn, P. M., and Szara, S. (1976). Acute and cumulative effects of marijuana smoking in hospitalized subjects: A 36-day study. In: Braude, M. C., and Szara, S. (eds.), The Pharmacology of Marijuana, Raven Press, New York, pp. 673-679.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franken, I. H. A., and Hendriks, V. M. (2000). Early onset of illicit substance use is associated with greater axis II comorbidity, not with axis I comorbidity. Drug Alcohol Depend. 59: 305-308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, T. R., Acton, P. D., Maldjian, J. A., Gray, J. D., Croft, J. R., Dackis, C. A., et al. (2002). Decreased gray matter concentration in the insular, orbitofrontal, cingulate, and temporal cortices of cocaine patients. Biolog. Psychiatry 51: 134-142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, A. D., Coffin, L., and Worth, D. (2002). Drug and chemical metabolites in clinical toxicology investigations: The importance of ethylene glycol, methanol and cannabinoid metabolite analyses. Chem. Biochem. 35: 501-511.

    Google Scholar 

  • Funke, J., and Krüger, T. (1995). "Plan A Day": Conception of a modi fiable instrument for the selection of managers and first results. In: Funke, J., and Fritz, A. (eds.), Neue Konzepte und Instrumente zur Planungsdiagnostik, Deutcher Psychologen Verlag, Bonn, pp. 97-120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatley, S. J., and Volkow, N. (1998). Addiction and imaging of the living human brain. Drug Alcohol Depend. 51: 97-108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gawin, F. H., and Kleber, H. D. (1986). Abstinence symptomatology and psychiatric diagnosis in cocaine abusers. Arch. Clin. Psychiatry 43: 107-113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerra, G., Calbiani, B., Zaimovic, A., Sartori, R., Ugolotti, G., Ippolito, L., et al. (1998). Regional cerebral blood flow and comorbid diagnosis in abstinent opioid addicts. Psychiatry Res.: Neuroimag. Sect. 83: 117-126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Ferri, M., Zambelli, U., Timpano, M., Neri, E., et al. (2000a). Long-lasting effects of 3,4-methylene-dioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) on serotonin system function in humans. Biolog. Psychiatry 47: 127-136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Timpano, M., Zambelli, U., Begarani, M., Marzocchi, G. F., et al. (2000b). Neuroendocrine correlates of temperament traits in abstinent opiate addicts. J. Subst. Abuse 11: 337-354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Zambelli, A., Delsignore, R., Baroni, M. C., Laviola, G., et al. (2000c). Neuroendocrine correlates of depression in abstinent heroin-dependent subjects. Psychiatry Res. 96: 221-234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giancola, P. R., Martin, C. S., Tarter, R. E., Moss, H. B., and Pelham, W. E. (1996). Executive cognitive function and aggressive behavior in preadolescent boys at high risk for substance abuse. J. Stud. Alcohol 57: 352-359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillen, R. W., Kranzler, H. R., Bauer, L. B., Burleson, J. A., Samarel, D., and Morrison, D. J. (1998). Neuropsychological findings in cocaine-dependent outpatients. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biolog. Psychiatry 22: 1061-1076.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glantz, M. D. (2002). Introduction to the special issue on the impact of childhood psychopathology interventions on subsequent substance abuse: Pieces of the puzzle. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 6: 1203-1206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glenn, S. W., Parsons, O. A., Sinha, R., and Stevens, L. (1988). The effects of repeated withdrawals from alcohol on the memory of male and female alcoholics. Alcohol Alcohol. 23: 337-342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, E., and Podell, K. (2000). Adaptive decision-making, ecological validity, and the frontal lobes. J. Clin. Exp. Psychol. 22: 56-68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, T. E., Bigelow, L. B., Weinberger, D. R., Daniel, D. G., and Kleinman, J. E. (1991). Cognitive and behavioural effects on coadministration of dextroanphetamine and haloperidol in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 148: 78-84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, M. (1983). Cognitive impairment in chronic alcoholics: Some cause for optimism. Am. Psychol. 38: 1045-1054.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, M., Williams, D., and Klisz, D. (1983). Recoverability of motor and sensory function following chronic alcohol abuse: Prolongued visual-spatial dysfunction in older alcoholics. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 51: 370-378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, R. Z., and Volkow, N. D. (2002). Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am. J. Pshychiatry 159: 1642-1652.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gossop, M., Darke, S., Griffiths, P., Hando, J., Powis, B., Hall, W., et al. (1995). The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS): Psychometric properties of the SDS in English and Australian samples of heroin, cocaine and amphetamine users. Addiction 90: 607-614.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottschalk, P. C., Beauvais, J., Hart, R., and Kosten, T. R. (2001). Cognitive function and cerebral perfusion during cocaine abstinence. Am. J. Psychiatry 158: 540-545.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottschalk, P. C., and Kosten, T. R. (2002). Cerebral perfusion defects in combined cocaine and alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 68: 95-104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Daumann, J., Tuchtenhagen, F., Pelz, S., Becker, S., Kunert, H. K., et al. (2000). Impaired cognitive performance in drug free users of recreational ecstasy (MDMA). J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 68: 719-725.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Thimm, B., Rezk, M., Hensen, G., and Daumann (2003). Memory impairment suggest hippocampal dysfunction in abstinent ecstasy abusers. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 27: 819-827.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grace, J., Stout, J. C., and Malloy, P. F. (1999). Assessing frontal behavioral syndromes with the Frontal Lobe Personality Scale. Assessment 6: 269-284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, I., Adams, K. M., Carlin, A. S., Rennick, P. M., Judd, L. L., and Schoof, K. (1978). The collaborative neuropsychological study of polydrug users. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 35: 1063-1075.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, I., Gonzalez, R., Carey, C. L., Natarajan, L., and Wolfson, T. (2003). Non-acute (residual) neurocognitive effects of cannabis use: A meta analytic review. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 9: 679-689.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, I., and Judd, L. L. (1976). Neuropsychological and EEG disturbances in polydrug user. Am. J. Psychiatry 133: 1039-1042.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, I., Rochford, J., Fleming, T., and Stunkard, A. (1973). A neuropsychological assessment of the effects of moderate marijuana use. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 156: 278-280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, S., Conttoreggi, C., and London, E. D. (2000). Drug abusers show impaired performance in a laboratory test of decision-making. Neuropsychologia 38: 1180-1187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, S., London, E. D., Newlin, D. B., Villemagne, V. L., Liu, X., Contoreggi, C., et al. (1996). Activation of memory circuits during cue-elicited cocaine craving. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93: 12040-12045.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfieldd, S. F., Weiss, R. D., Muenz, L. R., Vagge, L. M., Kelly, J. F., Bello, L. R., et al. (1998). The effect of depression on return to drinking: A prospective study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 55: 259-265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grewal, R., and Miller, B. L. (1991). Cocaine induced hypertensive encephalopathy. Acta Neurol. 13: 279-281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunnarsdottir, E. D., Pingitore, R. A., Spring, B. J., Konopka, B. N., Crayton, J. W., Milo, T., et al. (2000). Individual differences among cocaine users. Addict. Behav. 25: 641-652.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunther, M. W., and Lopez, F. G. (1995). The relations of neuropsychological functioning to length of stay, treatment outcome, denial and relapse rates in alcoholism [Abstract]. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 10: 335-336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gyulai, L., Alavi, A., Broich, K., Reilley, J., Ball, W. B., and Whylbrow, P. C. (1997). I-123 iofetamine single-photon emission tomography in rapid cycling bipolar disorder: A Clinical study. Biol. Psychiatry 41: 152-161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanks, G. W., O'Neill, W. M., Simpson, P., and Wesnes, K. (1995). The cognitive and psychomotor effects of opioids analgesics. A randomized controlled trial of single doses of morphine, lorazepam and placebo in healthy adults. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 48: 455-460.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, R. K., Chelune, G. J., Talley, J. L., Kay, G. G., and Curtiss, G. (1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Mamual: Revised and Expanded, Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hefferman, T. M., Jarvis, H., Rodgers, J., Scholey, A. B., and Ling, J. (2001). Prospective memory, everyday cognitive failure and central executive function in recreational users of ecstasy. Hum. Psychopharmacol.: Clin. Exp. 16: 607-612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heishman, S. J., Arasteh, K., and Stitzer, M. L. (1996). Comparative effects of alcohol and marijuana on mood, memory and performance. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 58: 93-101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helmus, T. C., Downey, K. K., Arfken, C. L., Henderson, M. J., and Schuster, C. R. (2001). Novelty seeking as predictor of treatment retention for heroin dependent cocaine users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 61: 287-295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, B., Caspy, A., Moffitt, T. E., and Silva, P. A. (1996). Temperamental and familial predictors of violent and non-violent criminal convictions: Age 3 to age 18. Dev. Psychol. 32: 614-623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hermle, L., Spitzer, M., Borchardt, D., Kovar, K. A., and Gouzoulis, E. (1993). Psychological effects of MDE in normal subjects. Are entactogens a new class of psychoactive agents? Neuropsychopharmacology 8: 171-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, S. Y., and Mikhael, M. A. (1979). Computerised transaxial tomographic and neuropsychological evaluations in chronic alcohol and heroin abusers. Am. J. Psychiatry 136: 598-602.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoff, A. L., Riordan, H., Alpert, R., and Volkow, N. (1991). Cognitive function in chronic cocaine abusers. J. Clin. Exp. Psychol. 13: 60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, A. (1991). Problems of alcohol and other drug use and abuse in adolescents. J. Adolesc. Health 12: 606-613.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horner, M. D. (1997). Cognitive functioning in alcoholic patients with and without cocaine dependence. Arch. Clin. Neurpsychol. 12: 667-676.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horner, M. D., Harvey, R. T., and Denier, C. A. (1999). Self-report and objective measures of cognitive deficit in patients entering substance abuse treatment. Psychiatry Res. 86: 155-161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hser, Y.-I., Grella, C. E., Collins, C., and Teruya, C. (2003). Drug-use initiation and conduct disorder among adolescents in drug treatment. J. Adolesc. 26: 331-345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyman, S. E., and Malenka, R. C. (2001). Addiction and the brain: The neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence. Nat. Rev. 2: 695-703.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen, L. K., Staley, J. K., Malison, R. T., Zoghbi, S. S., Seibyl, J. P., Kosten, T. R., et al. (2000). Elevated central serotonin transporter binding availability in acutely abstinent cocaine-dependent patients. Am. J. Psychiatry 157: 1134-1140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jasiukaitis, P., and Fein, G. (1999). Intact visual word priming in cocaine dependent subjects with and without cognitive deficit. Neuropsychopharmachol. Biol. Psychiatry 23: 1019-1036.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jatlow, P. (1995). Cocaethylene. What is it? Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 104: 120-121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, R. T., and Benowitz, N. (1976). The 30-day trip clinical studies of cannabis tolerance and dependence. In: Braude, M. C., and Szara, S. (eds.), The Pharmacology of Marijuana, Raven Press, New York, pp. 627-642.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. F., McKellar, J. D., and Moos, R. (2003). Major depression in patients with substance use disorders: Relationship to 12-step self-help involvement and substance use outcomes. Addiction 98: 499-508.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J.-M., and Neale, M. C. (2003). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60: 929-937.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kish, S. J. (2002). How strong is the evidence that brain serotonin neurons are damaged in human users of ecstasy? Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 71: 845-855.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klisz, D. K., and Parsons, O. A. (1977). Hypothesis testing in younger and older alcoholics. J. Stud. Alcohol 46: 116-121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klorman, R., Bauer, L. O., Conos, H. W., Lewis, J. L., Peloquin, L. J., Perlmutter, R. A., et al. (1984). Enhancing effects of methylphenidate on young adults cognitive processes. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 20: 3-12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kokkevi, A., Stefanis, N., Anastosopoulou, E., and Kostogianni, C. (1998). Personality disorders in drug abusers: Prevalence and their association with axis I disorders as predictors of treatment retention. Addict. Behav. 23: 841-853.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, B., and Fantie, B. (1989). Development of the child's brain and behavior. In: Reynolds, C. R., and Fletcher-Janzen, E. (eds.), Handbook of Clinical Child Neuropsychology, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 17-39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kollins, S. H. (2003). Delay discounting is associated with substance use in college students. Addict. Behav. 28: 1167-1173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosten, T. R. (1998). Phanmacotherapy of cerebral ischemia in cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 49: 133-144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosten, T. R., Cheeves, C., Palumbo, J., Seibyl, J. P., Price, L. H., and Woods, S. W. (1998). Regional cerebral blood flow during acute and chronic abstinence from combined cocaine-alcohol abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 50: 187-195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kouri, E. M., Lukas, S. E., and Mendelson, J. H. (1996). P300 assessment of opiate and cocaine users: Effects of detoxification and buprenorphine treatment. Biol. Psychiatry 40: 617-628.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristal, J., and Price, L. (1992). Chronic 3,4-methylenedioxy-metanphetamine ("ecstasy") in recreational users. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 11: 302-305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., Patrick, C. J., Carlson, S. R., lacono, W. G., and McGue, M. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 111: 411-424.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuo, P. H., Yang, H. J., Soong, W. T., and Chen, W. J. (2002). Substance use among adolescents in Taiwan: Associated personality traits, incompetence, and behavioral/emotional problems. Drug Alcohol Depend. 67: 27-39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuruoglu, A. C., Arikan, Z., Vural, G., Karatas, M., Arac, M., and Isik, E. (1996). Single photon emission computerised tomography in chronic alcoholism. Antisocial personality disorder may be associated with decreased frontal perfusion. Br. J. Psychiatry 169: 348-354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, J. M., Holman, B. L., Mendelson, J. H., Teoh, S. K., Garada, B., Johnson, K. A., et al. (1994). Gender differences in cerebral perfusion in cocaine abuse: Technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT study of drug abusing women. J. Nucl. Med. 35: 1902-1909.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological Assessment, 3rd edn., Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, X., Matochick, J. A., Cadet, J., and London, E. D. (1998). Smaller volume of prefrontal lobe in polysubstance abusers: A magnetic resonance imaging study Neuropsychopharmacology 18: 243-252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R. T., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (1999). Human neuroimaging of acute and chronic marijuana use: Implications for frontocerebellar dysfunction. Hum. Psychopharmacol. Clin. Exp. 14: 291-304.

    Google Scholar 

  • London, E. D., Ernst, M., Grant, S., Bonson, K., and Weinstein, A. (2000). Orbitofrontal cortex and human drug abuse: Functional imaging. Cereb. Cortex 10: 334-342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundqvist, T. (1995). Specific thought patterns in chronic cannabis smokers observed during treatment. Life Sci. 56: 2141-2144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyvers, M., and Yakimoff, M. (2003). Neuropsychological correlates of opioid dependence and withdrawal. Addict. Behav. 28: 605-611.

    Google Scholar 

  • Madden, G. J., Petry, N. M., Badger, G. J., and Bickel, W. K. (1997). Impulsive and self-control choices in opioid-dependent patients and non-drug-using control participants: Drug and monetary rewards. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 5: 256-262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manschreck, T. C., Schneyer, M. L., Weinstein, C. C., Laughery, J., Rosenthal, J., Celada, T., et al. (1990). Freebase cocaine and memory. Compr. Psychiatry 31: 369-375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maruff, P., Burns, C. B., Tyler, P., Currie, B. J., and Currie, J. (1998). Neural and cognitive abnormalities associated with chronic petrol sniffing. Brain 121: 1903-1917.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mateer, C. A. (1997). Rehabilitation of individuals with frontal lobe impairment. In: Leán-Carrián, J. (ed.), Neuropsychological Rehabilitation: Fundamentals, Innovations and Directions, GR/St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, FL, pp. 285-300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathalon, D. H., Pfefferbaum, A., Lim, K. O., Rosenbloom, M. A., and Sullivan, E. V. (2003). Compound brain volume deficits in schizophrenia-alcoholism comorbidity. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60: 245-252.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann, U. D., Mertl, M., Eligulashvili, V., and Ricaurte, G. A. (1999). Cognitive performance in 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy") users: A controlled study. Psychopharmaco-logy 143: 417-425.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann, U. D., and Ricaurte, G. A. (1991). Lasting neuropsychiatric sequelae of methylenedioxymetanphetamine ("ecstasy") in recreational users. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 11: 302-305.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGlynn, S. M., and Schacter, D. L. (1989). Unawareness of deficits in neuropsychological syndromes. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 11: 143-205.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire, P. (2000). Long-term psychiatric and cognitive effects of MDMA use. Toxicol. Lett. 112-113: 153-156.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire, P. K., Cope, H. M., and Fahy, T. (1994a). Diverse psychiatric morbidity associated with use of 3-4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy"). Br. J. Psychiatry 165: 391-394.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire, P. K., and Fahy, T. (1991). Flashbacks following MDMA. Br. J. Psychiatry 160: 275-276.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire, P. K., Jones, P., Bebbington, P., Toone, B. K., Lewis, S. W., and Murray, R. M. (1994b). Cannabis and acute psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 13: 161-168.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKetin, R., and Mattick, R. P. (1998). Attention and memory in illicit amphetamine users: Comparison with non-drug-using-controls. Drug Alcohol Depend. 50: 181-184.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLellan, A. T., Luborsky, L., Cacciola, J., Griffith, J., Evans, F., Barr, H. I., et al. (1985). New data from the Addiction Severity Index: Reliability and validity in three centers. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 173: 412-423.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLellan, A. T., Luborsky, L., Woody, G. E., and O'Brien, C. P. (1980). An improved evaluation instrument for substance abuse patients. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 168: 26-33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendelson, J. H., Babor, T. F., Kuehnle, J. C., Rossi, A. M., Bernstein, J. G., Mello, N. K., et al. (1976). Behavioral and biological aspects of marijuana use. Annu. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 282: 186-210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendhiratta, S. S., Varma, V. K., Dang, R., Malhotra, A. K., Das, K., and Nehra, R. (1988). Cannabis and cognitive functions: A re-evaluation study. Br. J. Addict. 83: 749-753.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendhiratta, S. S., Wig, N. N., and Varma, V. K. (1978). Some psychological correlates of long-term heavy cannabis users. Br. J. Psychiatry 132: 482-486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mensch, B. S., and Kandel, D. B. (1988). Underreporting of substance use in a national longitudinal youth cohort: Individual and interviewer effects. Public Opin. Q. 52: 100-124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messina, N. P., Wish, E. D., and Nemes, S. (1999). Therapeutic community treatment for substance abusers with antisocial personality disorder. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 17: 121-128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L. (1990). Neuropsychodynamics of alcoholism and addiction: Personality, psychopathology, and cognitive style. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 7: 31-49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L. H., and Smith, A. D. (1987). Vulnerability to Stress Scale, Biobehavioral Associates, Brookline, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mintzer, M. Z., and Stitzer, M. L. (2002). Cognitive impairment in methadone maintenance patients. Drug Alcohol Depend 67: 41-51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mittenberg, W., and Motta, S. (1993). Effects of chronic cocaine abuse in memory and learning. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 8: 477-483.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzky, A. H., and Howerther, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive function and their contribution to complex frontal lobe tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 41: 49-100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Modestin, J., Matutat, B., and Würmle, O. (2001). Antecedents of opioid dependence and personality disorder: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 251: 42-47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mody, C. K., Miller, B. L., McIntyre, H. B., Cobb, S. K., and Goldberg, M. A. (1998). Neurological complications of cocaine abuse. Neurology 38: 1189-1193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moeller, F. G., Dougherty, D. M., Barrat, E. S., Oderinde, V., Mathias, C. W., Harper, A., et al. (2002). Increased impulsivity in cocaine dependent subjects independent of antisocial personality disorder and aggression. Drug Alcohol Depend. 68: 105-111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moeller, F. G., Dougherty, D. M., Barrat, E. S., Schmitz, J. M., Swann, A. C., and Grabowsky, J. (2001). The impact of impulsivity on cocaine use and retention in treatment. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 21: 193-198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monterosso, J., Ehrman, R., Napier, K., O'Brien, C. P., and Childress, A. R. (2001). Three decision-making tasks in cocaine-dependent patients: Do they measure the same construct? Addiction 96: 1825-1837.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, A. B., and Lilienfeld, S. O. (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive function. Clin. Psychol. 20: 113-136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, M. J. (1998). Recreational use of MDMA ("ecstasy") is associated with elevated impulsivity. Neuropsychopharmacology 19: 252-264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, M. J. (1999) Memory deficits associated with recreational use of "ecstasy" (MDMA). Psychopharmacology 141: 30-36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, M. J. (2000) Ecstasy (MDMA): A review of its possible persistent psychological effects. Psychopharmacology 152: 230-248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, M. J., McFie, L., Fleetwood, L. H., and Robinson, J. A. (2001). Ecstasy (MDMA): Are the psychological problems associated with its use reversed by prolonged abstinence? Psychopharmacology 159: 294-303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moselhy, H. F., Georgiou, G., and Kahn, A. (2001). Frontal lobe changes in alcoholism: A review of the literature. Alcohol Alcohol. 36: 357-368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moss, H., Blackson, T., Martin, C., and Tarter, R. (1992). Heightened motor activity level in male offspring of substance abusing fathers. Biol. Psychiatry 32: 1135-1147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mountain, K. C., Marlowe, D. B., Piatt, A., and Kirby, K. C. (1997). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and executive functioning in cocaine dependence [Abstract]. Arch. Clin. Neuopsychol. 12: 374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mozley, P. D., Hornig Rohan, M., Woda, A. M., Kim, H. J., Alavi, A., Payer, F., et al. (1996). Cerebral HMPAO SPECT in patients with major depression and healthy volunteers. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 20: 443-458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers, M. G., Stewart, D. G., and Brown, S. A. (1998). Progression from conduct disorder to antisocial personality disorder following treatment for adolescent substance abuse. Am. J. Psychiatry 155: 479-485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nauta, W. J. H. (1972). Neural associations of the frontal cortex. Acta Neurobiol. Exp. 32: 125-140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. D., and Bentler, P. M. (1988). Consequence of Adolescent Drug Use: Impact on the Lives of Young Adults, Sage, Beverley Hills, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Blaskey, L. G., Huang-Pollock, C. L., and Rappley, M. (2002). Neuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 41: 59-66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Öhman, A., Flykt, A., and Lundqvist, D. (2000). Unconscious emotion: Evolutionary perspectives, psychophisiological data and neuropsychological mechanisms, In: Lane, R. D., and Nadel, L. (eds.), Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 296-327.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Malley, S., Adamse, M., Heaton, R. K., and Gawin, F. H. (1990). Neuropsychological impairment in chronic cocaine abusers. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 18: 131-144.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Malley, S. S., and Gawin, F. H. (1990). Abstinence symptomatology and neuropsychological impairment in chronic cocaine abusers. In: Spencer, J. W., and Boren, J. J. (eds.), Residual Effects of Abused Drugs in Behavior, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD, pp. 179-190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, T. J., Iddon, J. L., Baldacchino, A. M., Sahakian, B. J., London, M., Everitt, B. J., et al. (2000). Profiles of cognitive disfunction in chronic anphetamine and heroin abusers. Neuropsychopharmacology 23: 113-126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osterrieth(1944). Le test de copie d'une figure complex: contribution a l'etude de la perception et de la memoire. Arch. Psychol. 30: 286-356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouimette, P., Humpphreys, K., Moos, R. H., Finney, J. W., Cronkite, R., and Federman, B. (2001). Self-help group participation among substance use disorder patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 20: 25-32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, J. B., Fletcher, J., and True, W. R. (1988). Psychosociocultural perspectives on chronic cannabis use: The Costa Rican follow up. J. Psychoactive Drugs 20: 57-65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pallanti, S., and Mazzi, D. (1992). MDMA ("ecstasy") precipitation of panic disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 32: 91-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkin, A. J. (1998). The central executive does not exist. J. Int. Neuropscyhol. Soc. 4: 518-522.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parrot, A. C., and Lasky, J. (1998). Ecstasy (MDMA) effects among mood and cognition: Before, during and after a Saturday night dance. Psychopharmacology 139: 261-268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parrot, A. C., Lees, A., Garnham, N., Jones, M., and Wesnes, K. (1998). Cognitive performance in recreational users of MDMA or "ecstasy": Evidence for memory deficits. J. Psychopharmacol. 12: 79-83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parrot, A. C., Sisk, E., and Turner, J. J. D. (2000). Psychobiological problems in heavy "Ecstasy" users (MDMA) polydrug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 60: 105-110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, O. A., and Leber, W. R. (1982). Biomedical Processes and Consequences of Alcohol Use: Alcohol, Cognitive Disfunction and Brain Damage, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, O. A., and Nixon, S. J. (1993). Neurobehavioral sequelae of alcoholism. Neurol. Clin. 11: 205-218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pascual-Leone, A., Dhuna, A., and Anderson, D. C. (1991). Cerebral atrophy in habitual cocaine abusers: A plannimetric CT study. Neurology 4: 34-38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patkar, A. A., Berrettini, W. H., Hoehe, M., Thornton, C. C., Gottheil, E., Hill, K., et al. (2002). Serotonin transporter polymorphisms and measures of impulsivity, agression and sensation seeking among African-American cocaine-dependent individuals. Psychiatry Res. 110: 103-115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pau, W. H., Lee, M. C., and Chan, S. F. (2002). The impact of heroin on frontal executive functions. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 17: 663-670.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulus, M. P., Hozack, N. E., Zauscher, B. E., Frank, L., Brown, G. G., Braff, D. L., et al. (2002). Behavioral and functional neuroimaging evidence for prefrontal dysfunction in methamphetamine-dependent subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 26: 53-62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearlson, G. D., Jeffery, P. J., Harris, G. J., Ross, C. A., Fishman, M. W., and Camargo, E. E. (1993). Correlation of acute cocaine-induced changes in local cerebral blood flow with subjective effects. Am. J. Psychiatry 150: 495-497.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peroutka, S. J., Newman, H., and Harris, H. (1988). Subjective effects of 3,4-methylene-dioxymethanmphetamine in recreational users. Neuropsychopharmacology 1: 273-277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peroutka, S. J., Pascoe, N., and Faull, K. F. (1987). Monoamine metabolites in the cerebrospinal fluid of recreational users of 3,4-methylene-dioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; "Ecstasy"). Res. Commun. Subst. Abuse 8: 125-138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, M. A., Patterson, B., Pillman, B. M., and Battista, M. A. (2002) Cognitive recovery following alcohol detoxification: A computerized remediation study. Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 12: 63-74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petry, N. M., Bickel, W. K., and Arnett, M. (1998). Shortened time horizons and insensitivity to future consequences in heroin addicts. Addiction 93: 729-738.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pezawas, L. M., Fischer, G., Diamant, K., Schneider, C., Schindler, S. D., Thurnher, M, et al. (1998). Cerebral CT findings in male opioid-dependent patients: Stereological, planimetric and linear measurements. Psychiatry Res. Neuroimag. 83: 139-147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pineda, D. A. (2000). La funcián ejecutiva y sus trastornos. Revista de NeurologÍa 30: 764-768.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pogge, D. L., Horan, W. P., Borgaro, S. R., Stokes, J. M., Lord, J. J., and Harvey, P. D. (1996). Cognitive impulsivity in adolescent conduct disorder and depression. Biol. Psychiatry 39: 536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pontius, A. A., and Ruttiger, K. F. (1976). Frontal lobe system maturational lag in juvenile delinquents shown in narrative test. Adolescence 11: 509-518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Hudson, J. L., Huestis, M. A., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2001a). Neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58: 909-915.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. (1995). The residual neuropsychological effects of cannabis. The current status of research. Drug Alcohol Depend. 38: 25-34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2001b). Residual neuropsychological effects of cannabis. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 3: 507-512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prigatano, G. P. (1999). Principles of Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raimo, E. B., and Schuckit, M. A. (1998). Alcohol dependence and mood disorders. Addict. Behav. 23: 933-946.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reich, J. H., and Vasile, R. G. (1993). Effect of personality disorders on the treatment outcome of Axis I conditions: An update. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 181: 247-291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reitan, R. M., and Wolfson, D. (1986). The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. In Wedding, D., Horto, A. M., Jr., and Webster, J. S. (eds.), The Neuropsychology Handbook, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 134-160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rey, A. (1964). L'examen clinique en psychologie, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricaurte, G. A., Finnegan, K. T., Irwin, I., and Langston, J. W. (1990). Aminergic metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid of humans previously exposed to MDMA: Preliminary observations. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 600: 699-710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, D., Langenbucher, J., Goldman, M., and Brown, S. (2000). Adolescents are not adults: Developmental considerations in alcohol users. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 24: 232-237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rinn, W., Desai, N., Rosenblatt, H., and Gastfriend, D. R. (2002). Addiction denial and cognitive dysfunction: A preliminary investigation. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 14: 52-57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, T. W. (2000). Chemical neuromodulation of frontal-executive functions in humans and other animals. Exp. Brain Res. 133: 10-138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, T. W., James, M., Owen, A., Sahakian, B. J., McInnes, L., and Rabbitt, P. M. (1994). Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB): A factor analytic study of a large sample of normal elderly volunteers. Dementia 5: 266-281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, T. W., James, M., Owen, A. M., Sahakian, B. J., Lawrence, A. D., McInnes, L., et al. (1998). A study of performance on tests from the CANTAB battery sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction in a large sample of normal volunteers: Implications for theories of executive functioning and cognitive aging. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 4: 474-490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, A. C., Robbins, T. W., and Weiskrantz, L. (1998). The Prefrontal Cortex: Executive and Cognitive Functions, Oxford University Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N. (1998). The intimate relationship between antisocial personality disorder and substance abuse. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 33: 393-399.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J. E., Heaton, R. K., and O'Malley, S. S. (1999). Neuropsychological functioning in cocaine abusers with and without alcohol dependence. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 5: 10-19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, T. E., and Kolb, B. (1999). Alterations in the morphology of dentrites and dentritic spines in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex following repeated treatment with amphetamine and cocaine. Eur. J. Neurosci. 11: 1598-1604.

    Google Scholar 

  • RodrÍguez-Alvárez, M. (1981). Evaluacián neuropsicolágica de la memoria viso-constructiva inmediata en heroinámanos. Psiquis 12: 55-62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R. D., Everitt, B. J., Baldacchino, A., Blackshaw, A. J., Swainson, R., Wynne, K., et al. (1999). Dissociable deficits in the decision-making cognition of chronic anphetamine abusers, opiate abusers, patients with focal damage to prefrontal cortex, and tryptophan-depleted normal volunteers: Evidence for monoaminergic mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology 20: 322-339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R. D., and Robbins, T. W. (2001). Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse. Curr. Opin. Neurobio. 11: 250-257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, J. S., Branchey, M., Buydens-Branchey, L., Stapleton, J. M., Chasten, K., Werrell, A., et al. (1996). Cerebral perfusion in early and late opiate withdrawal: A technetium-99-m-HMPAO SPECT study. Psychiatry Res. Neuroimag. Sect. 67: 39-47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roselli, M., and Ardila, A. (1996). Cognitive effects of cocaine and polydrug abuse. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 18: 122-135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rounsaville, B. J., Kranzler, H. R., Ball, S., Tennen, H., Poling, J., and Triffleman, E. (1998) Personality disorders in substance abusers: Relation to substance use. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 186: 87-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rounsaville, B. J., Novelly, R., Kleber, H., and Jones, C. (1981). Neuropsychological impairment in opiate addicts: Risk factors. In: Millman, R. B., Cushman, P., and Lowison, J. H. (eds.), Research Developments in Drug and Alcohol Abuse, New York Academy of Sciences, New York, pp. 79-90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sbordone, R. J., and Long, C. J. (1996). Ecological Validity of Neuropsychological Testing, GR/St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, J., Andrysiak, T., and Ungerleider, J. T. (1981). Cognitive and long-term use of ganja (cannabis). Science 213: 465-466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schau, E. J., O'Leary, M. R., and Chaney, E. F. (1980). Reversibility of cognitive deficits in alcoholics. J. Stud. Alcohol 41: 733-740.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schifano, F. (1991). Chronic atypical psychosis associated with MDMA ("ecstasy") abuse. Lancet 338: 1335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schifano, F., Di Furia, L., Forza, G., Minicuci, N., and Bricolo, R. (1998). MDMA ("Ecstasy") consumption in the context of polydrug abuse: A report on 150 patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 52: 85-90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlaepfer, T. E., Pearlson, G. D., Wong, D. F., Marenco, S., and Dannals, R. F. (1997). PET study of competition between intravenous cocaine and [11C]Raclopride at dopamine receptors in human subjects. Am. J. Psychiatry 154: 1209-1213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz, J. M., Averill, P., Stotts, A. L., Moeller, F. G., Rhoades, H. M., and Grabowsky, J. (2001). Fluoxetine treatment of cocaine-dependent patients with major depressive disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 63: 207-214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, R. H., Gruenewald, P. J., Klitzner, M., and Fedio, P. (1989). Short-term memory impairment in cannabis-dependent adolescents. Am. J. Dis. Child. 143: 1214-1219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J., Gilvarry, E., and Farrell, M. (1998). Managing anxiety and depression in alcohol and drug dependence. Addict. Behav. 23: 919-931.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, L. J., Biederman, J., Weber, W., Hatch, M., and Faraone, S. V. (1998). Neuropsychological function in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 44: 260-268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sekine, Y., Iyo, M., Ouchi, Y., Matsunaga, T., Tsukada, H., Okada, H., et al. (2001). Methamphetamine-related psychiatric symptoms and reduced brain dopamine transporters studied with PET. Am. J. Psychiatry 158: 1206-1214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selby, M. J., and Azrin, R. L. (1998). Neuropsychological functioning in drug abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 50: 39-45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selby, M. J., Azrin, R. L., Ireland, S. J., Quiroga, M., and Malow, R. M. (1995). Differential recovery of neuropsychological functioning in alcohol, cocaine, and polysubstance abusers [Abstract]. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 10: 390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sell, L. A., Morris, J. S., Bearn, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., Friston, K. J., and Dolan, R. J. (2000). Neural responses associated with cue evoked emotional states and heroin in opiate addicts. Drug Alcohol Depend. 60: 207-216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semple, D. M., Ebmeier, K. P., Glubus, M. F., O'Cairoll, R. F., and Johnsione, F. C. (1999). Reduced in vivo binding to the serotonin transporter in the cerebral cortex of MDMA ("ecstasy") users. Br. J. Psychiatry 175: 63-69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serper, M. R., Bergman, A., Copersino, M. L., Chou, J. C. Y., Richarme, D., and Cancro, R. (2000a). Learning and memory impairment in cocaine-dependent and comorbid schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res. 93: 21-32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serper, M. R., Copersino, M. L., Richarme, D., Vadhan, N., and Cancro, R. (2000b). Neurocognitive functioning in recently abstinent cocaine-abusing schizophrenic patients. J. Subst. Abuse 11: 205-213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherwood Brown, E., Suppes, T., Adinoff, B., and Thomas, N.-R. (2001). Drug abuse and bipolar disorder: Comorbidity or misdiagnosis? J. Affect. Disord. 65: 105-115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, N. G., and Mattick, R. P. (2002). The impact of regular ecstasy use on memory function. Addiction 97: 1523-1529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, J. S., and Carey, K. B. (2002). Risk and vulnerability for marijuana use problems: The role of affective dysregulation. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 16: 72-75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, H. A. (1982). The Drug Abuse Screening Test. Addict. Behav. 7: 363-371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sklair-Tavron, L., Shi, W., Lane, S. B., Harris, H. W., Bunney, B. S., and Nestler, E. J. (1996). Chronic morphine induces visible changes in the morphology of mesolimbic dopamine neurons. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93: 11202-11207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skodol, A. E., Oldham, J. M., and Gallaher, P. E. (1999). Axis II comorbidity of substance use disorders among patients refered for treatment of personality disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 156: 733-738.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soar, K., Turner, J. J. D., and Parrot, A. C. (2001). Psychiatric disorders in ecstasy (MDMA) users: A literature review focusing on personal predisposition and drug history. Hum. Psychopharmacol. Hum. Exp. 16: 641-645.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sohlberg, M. M., and Mateer, C. A. (1989). Introduction to Cognitive Rehabilitation, Guilford, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solowij, N. (1995). Do cognitive impairments recover following cessation of cannabis use? Life Sci. 56: 2119-2126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solowij, N. (1998). Cannabis and Cognitive Functioning, Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solowij, N., Hall, W., and Lee, N. (1992). Recreational MDMA use in Sydney: A profile of "ecstasy" users and their experiences with the drug. Br. J. Addict. 87: 1161-1172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solowij, N., Mitchie, P. T., and Fox, A. M. (1995). Differential impairments of selective attention due to frequency and duration of cannabis use. Biol. Psychiatry 37: 731-739.

    Google Scholar 

  • Souief, M. I. (1976). Differential associations between chronic cannabis use and brain function deficits. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 282: 323-343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, J. (1991). The Residual Effects of Abused Drugs on Performance, U.S. Superintendent of Documents, Washington, DC.

  • Spitz, H. I., and Rosecan, J. S. (1987). Cocaine Abuse: New Directions in Treatment and Research, Bruner/Mazel, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., Gibbon, M., and First, M. B. (1990). User's Guide for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM III-R: SCID, American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steen, R. G., Ogg, R. J., Reddick, W. E., and Kingsley, P. B. (1997). Age related changes in the pediatric brain: Quantitive MR evidence of maturational changes during adolescence. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 18: 819-828.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, M. C., Kaplan, R. F., and Bauer, L. O. (2001). Relationship of cognitive ability to the developmental course of antisocial behavior in substance-dependent patients. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 25: 1523-1536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strand, J. G., and Benjamin, L. S. (1997). Resistance to change in individuals with personality disorder. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 10: 132-135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strang, J., and Gurling, H. (1989). Computerized tomography and neuropsychological associations in long-term heroin addicts. Addiction 85: 1011-1019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strickland, T. L., Mena, I., Villanueva-Meyer, J., Cummings, J., Mehringer, C. M., Satz, P., et al. (1993). Cerebral perfusion and neuropsychological consequences of chronic cocaine use. J. Neuropsychiatry 5: 419-437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strickland, T. L., Miller, B. L., Kowell, A., and Stein, R. (1998). Neurobiology of cocaine-induced organic brain impairment: Contributions from functional neuroimaging. Neuropsychol. Rev. 8: 1-8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strickland, T. L., and Stein, R. (1995). Cocaine induced cerebrovascular impairment: Challenges to neuropsychological assessment. Neuropsychol. Rev. 5: 69-79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T., and Alexander, M. P. (2000). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A conceptual view. Psychol. Res. 63: 289-298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, S., McCuller, W. J., and Dent, C. W. (2003). The associations of social self-control, personality disorders, and demographics with drug use among high-risk youth. Addict. Behav. 28: 1159-1166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, S., Rychtarik, R. G., Mueser, K., Glynn, A., and Prue, D. M. (1986). Ecological relevance of memory tests and the prediction of relapse in alcoholics. J. Stud. Alcohol 47: 305-310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tapert, S. F., and Brown, S. A. (1999). Neuropsychological correlates of adolescent substance abuse: Four years outcomes. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 5: 481-495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tapert, S. F., Granholm, E., Leedy, N. G., and Brown, S. A. (2002). Substance use and withdrawal: Neuropsychological functioning over 8 years in youth. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 8: 873-883.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarter, R., Jacob, T., and Bremmer, B. (1989). Specific cognitive impairment in sons of early onset alcoholics. Alcohol: Clin. Exp. Res. 13: 786-789.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarter, R., Mezzich, A. C., Hsieh, Y., and Parks, S. M. (1995). Cognitive capacity in female adolescent substance abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 39: 15-21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teichner, G., Horner, M. D., Roitzsch, J. C., Herron, J., and Thevos, A. (2002). Substance abuse treatment outcomes for cognitively impaired and intact outpatients. Addict. Behav. 27: 751-763.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomasius, R., Petersen, K., Buchert, R., Andresen, B., Zapletalova, P., Wartberg, L., et al. (2003). Mood, cognition and serotonin transporter availability in current and former ecsatsy (MDMA) users. Psychopharmacology 167: 85-96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tirapu, J., Landa, N., and Lorea, I. (2002). Sobre las recaÍdas, la mentira y la falta de voluntad de los adictos. Adicciones 15: 10-16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toomey, R., Lyons, M. J., Eisen, S. A., Xian, H., Chantarujipakong, S., Seidman, L. J., et al. (2003). A twin study of the neuropsychological consequences of stimulant abuse. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60: 303-310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tracy, J. I., Josiassen, R. C., and Bellack, A. S. (1995). Neuropsychology of dual diagnosis understanding the combined effects of schizophrenia and substance use disorders. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 15: 67-97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tunving, K., Thulin, S. O., Risberg, J., and Warkentin, J. (1986). Regional cerebral blood flow in long-term heavy cannabis users. Psychiatry Res. 17: 15-21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R. J., and Gil, A. G. (2002). Psychiatric and substance use disorders in South Florida. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 59: 43-50.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServicesCommunityEpidemiologyWorkGroup(2003). Epidemiologic Trends in Drug Abuse. Advance Report 2003. Retrieved November 12, 2003, from http://www.drugabuse.gov/PDF/CEWG/AdvReport603.pdf.

  • Van Gorp, W. G., Wilkins, J. N., Hinkin, C. H., Moore, L. H., Hull, J., Horner, M. D., et al. (1999). Declarative and procedural memory functioning in abstinent cocaine abusers. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 56: 85-89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Varma, V. K., Malhotra, A. K., Dang, R., Das, K., and Nehra, R. (1988). Cannabis and cognitive function: A prospective study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 21: 147-152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verheul, R. (2001). Comorbidity of personality disorders in individuals with substance use disorders. Eur. Psychiatry 16: 274-282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verheul, R., Brink, W., and Geerlings, P. J. (1999). A three pathway biopsychological model of craving for alcohol. Alcohol Alcohol. 34: 347-378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verkes, R. J., Gijsman, H. J., Pieters, M. S. M., Schoemaker, R. C., Visser, S., Kuijpers, M., et al. (2001). Cognitive performance and serotonergic function in users of ecstasy. Psychopharmacology 153: 196-202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Chang, L., Wang, G., Fowler, J. S., Ding, Y., Sedler, M., et al. (2001a). Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: Association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. Am. J. Psychiatry 158: 2015-2021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Chang, L., Wang, G., Fowler, J. S., Franceschi, D., Sedler, M. J., et al. (2001b). Higher cortical and lower subcortical metabolism in detoxified methamphetamine abusers. Am. J. Psychiatry 158: 383-389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., and Fowler, J. S. (2000). Addiction: A disease of compulsion and drive: Involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb. Cortex 10: 318-325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Fowler, J. S., Wolf, A. P., Cchyler, D., Shiue, C. Y., Alpert, R., et al. (1990). Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on postsynaptic dopamine receptors. Am. J. Psychiatry 147: 719-724.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Fowler, J. S., Wolf, A. P., Hitzemann, R., Dewey, S., Bendriem, B., et al. (1991). Changes in brain glucose metabolism in cocaine dependence and withdrawal. Am. J. Psychiatry 148: 621-626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Gillespie, H., Mullani, N., Tancredi, L., Grant, C., Valentine, A., et al. (1996). Brain glucose metabolism in chronic marijuana users at baseline and during marijuana intoxication. Psychiatry Res.: Neuroimag. Sect. 67: 29-38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Mullani, N., Gould, K. L., Adler, S., and Krajewsky, K. (1988). Cerebral blood flow in chronic cocaine users: A study with positron emission tomography. Br. J. Psychiatry 152: 641-148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Flower, J. S., Logan, J. Gatley, S. J., Hitzeman, R., et al. (1997). Decreased striatal dopaminergic responsiveness in detoxified cocaine-dependent subjects. Nature 386: 830-833.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, M. T., and Cusham, L. A. (1994). Neuroanatomic and neuropsychological predictors of unawareness of cognitive deficits in the vascular population. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 9: 57-69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, G., Volkow, N. D., Fowler, J. S., Logan, J., Hitzemann, R. J., Pappas, N. S., et al. (1997) Dopamine D2 receptor availability in opiate-dependent subjects before and after naloxone precipitated withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology 16: 174-182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wareing, M., Fisk, J. E., and Murphy, P. N. (2000). Working memory deficits in current and previous users of MDMA ("ecstasy"). Br. J. Psychol. 91: 181-188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Washton, A. M., and Gold, M. S. (1984). Chronic cocaine abuse: Evidence and adverse effects on health and functioning. Psychiatr. Ann. 17: 733-743.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1997a). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition, Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1997b). Wechsler Memory Scale-Third Edition, Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R. D., Griffin, M. L., and Mirin, S. M. (1992). Drug abuse as self-medication for depression: An empirical study. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 18: 121-129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wetzel, C. D., Janowsky, D. S., and Clopton, P. L. (1982). Remote memory during marihuana intoxication. Psychopharmacology 76: 278-281.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, S. R., Harris, G. C., Imel, K. M., and Wheaton, M. J. (1995). Inhibitory effects of dopamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) on glutamate-evoked firing of nucleus accumbens and caudate/putamen cells are enhanced following cocaine self-administration. Brain Res. 681: 167-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiesbeck, G., and Taeschner, K. L. (1991). A cerebral computed tomography study of patients with drug-induced psychoses. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 241: 88-90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wig, N. N., and Varma, V. K. (1977). Pattern of long term heavy cannabis use in North India and its effects on cognitive functions: A preliminary report. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2: 211-219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, B. A., Alderman, N., Burgess, P. W., Emslie, H., and Evans, J. J. (1996) Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome, Thames Valley Test, Bury St. Edmunds, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, B. A., Cockburn, J., and Baddeley, A. (1985). The Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test, Thames Valley Test, Bury St. Edmunds, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W., Mathew, R., Turkington, T., Hawk, T., Coleman, R. E., and Provenzale, J. (2000). Brain morphological changes and early marijuana use: A magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography study. J. Addict. Dis. 19: 1-22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuille, J. C., Tollestrup, P. A., Marxsen, D., Porter, S., and Herve, H. M. F. (1998). An exploration of the effects of marijuana on eyewitness memory. Int. J. Law Psychiatry 21: 117-128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuspeh, R., Selby, M. J., and Ririe, J. (1992). Neuropsychological functioning among long-term substance abusers with varying levels of abstinence. Clin. Neuropsychol. 6: 334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zakzanis, K. K. (2001). Statistics to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth: Formulae, illustrative numerical examples, and heuristic interpretation of effect size analyses for neuropsychological researchers. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 16: 653-667.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zakzanis, K. K., and Young, D. A. (2001). Executive function in abstinent MDMA ("ecstasy") users. Med. Sci. Monit. Int. Med. J. Exp. Clin. Res. 7: 1292-1298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M., and Coryell, W. (1989). DSM-III personality disorder diagnosis in a nonpatient sample: Demographic correlates and comorbidity. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 46: 682-689.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departamento de Personalidad, Evaluación y Tratamiento Psicológico, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain

    Antonio Verdejo-García, Francisca López-Torrecillas, Carmen Orozco Giménez & Miguel Pérez-García

Authors
  1. Antonio Verdejo-García
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Francisca López-Torrecillas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Carmen Orozco Giménez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Miguel Pérez-García
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Antonio Verdejo-García.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Verdejo-García, A., López-Torrecillas, F., Giménez, C.O. et al. Clinical Implications and Methodological Challenges in the Study of the Neuropsychological Correlates of Cannabis, Stimulant, and Opioid Abuse. Neuropsychol Rev 14, 1–41 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NERV.0000026647.71528.83

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NERV.0000026647.71528.83

Search

Navigation