Table 3

Causal effects of COVID-19 on MDD

Exposure	Outcome	Method	b (SE)	OR (95% CI)	P value
SARS-CoV-2 infection	MDD	IVW	0.008 (0.021)	1.01 (0.97 to 1.05)	0.691
SARS-CoV-2 infection	MDD	WM	0.008 (0.025)	1.01 (0.96 to 1.06)	0.766
SARS-CoV-2 infection	MDD	MR-Egger	−0.063 (0.034)	0.94 (0.88 to 1.00)	0.081
Hospitalised COVID-19	MDD	IVW	0.001 (0.010)	1.00 (0.98 to 1.02)	0.955
Hospitalised COVID-19	MDD	WM	0.003 (0.011)	1.00 (0.98 to 1.03)	0.777
Hospitalised COVID-19	MDD	MR-Egger	−0.009 (0.019)	0.99 (0.96 to 1.03)	0.643
Critical COVID-19	MDD	IVW	−0.001 (0.006)	1.00 (0.99 to 1.01)	0.859
Critical COVID-19	MDD	WM	0.002 (0.007)	1.00 (0.99 to 1.02)	0.764
Critical COVID-19	MDD	MR-Egger	−0.002 (0.011)	1.00 (0.98 to 1.02)	0.839

b, effect size; CI, confidence interval; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; IVW, inverse variance weighted; MDD, major depressive disorder; MR, Mendelian randomisation; OR, odds ratio; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; SE, standard error; WM, weighted median.